The Shinto vs. Genesis Creation Story Essay -- Scripture Analysis

â€Å"And God said let there be light, and there was light†¦Ã¢â‚¬  as indicated by the Genesis story, a substance which bears no unmistakable face or substantial structure made the world with just a quick tongue. It bore the state of the earth, the copious abundance of the dirt, the excellence of creatures, and the marvel known as mankind all inside the time range of seven days. It made the thought of cultural law, moral guideline, and a respect for a divinity by faithful subjects. Furthermore, it established a brutal guideline of law which incited the possibility that if any piece of you, brain or body, were to resist it, you would be rebuffed in the now and in the after. Regardless, the Christian recounting how our reality became, albeit following a way careless of the possibility of a multilateral way to deal with getting God, appears to convey a few likenesses to that of Shintoism. Or then again contrasts? The Shinto creation story is a gem all by itself, also it takes on the possibility that different humanoid gods, not a unidentified mass of profound generosity, made this world. Also, we adopt on an alternate strategy to creation, wherein as opposed to things being conceived out of verbally expressed word, our reality was entirely made by two ace makers of land and ocean, Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto . Initially, let us examine the specifics of the Christian Genesis story as to start figuring the premise of correlation and difference. We will take a gander at the two pieces of Genesis, the first talking about the detailing of earth and its inward specifics, working together with the initial not many refrains related with the second piece of Genesis, which addresses the production of the principal man and lady: â€Å"Light is directed to appear†¦ the light is isolated ... ...ase of the universe of Christians, who see God as an incomparable being bound to a code of law which serves to secure their inclinations and guarantee that their life is regarded and proceeded. Works Cited 1) New International Version. Fantastic Rapids, MI: The Zondervan Corporation, 2001. Print. 2) Shimazono, Susumu. 2005. State Shinto and the Religious Structure of Modern Japan. Journal Of The American Academy Of Religion 73, no. 4: 1077-1098. Scholastic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (got to April 23, 2012). 3) Rutgers University, Beginning. Accessed April 21, 2012. http://crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/genesis.html. 4) Shinto. BBC News. BBC. Web. 21 Apr. 2012. . 5) Leeming, David Adams. 2010. Creation Myths of the World : An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, 2010. digital book Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (got to April 21, 2012).

Deterioration Of Quality Of Water - Free Essay Example

Water is essential for the survival of living organisms.On an average, a human being consumes about 2 litres of water every day. Water accounts for about 70% of the weight of a human body. About 80% of the earths surface (i.e. 80% of the total 50,000 million hectares in area) is covered by water. Out of the estimated 1,011 million km3 of the total water present on earth, only 33,400 km3 of water is available for drinking, agriculture, domestic and industrial consumption. The rest of the water is locked up in oceans as salt water, polar ice-caps and glaciers and underground. Owing to increasing industrialization on one hand and exploding population on the other, the demands of water supply have been increasing tremendously. Moreover, considerable part of this limited quantity of water is polluted by sewage, industrial wastes and a wide array of synthetic chemicals. Water pollution means deterioration of quality of water as measured by physical, chemical or biological criteria. The quality of water is judged keeping in view the planned use of the water, the level of pollution or contamination and its impact on the ecology and public health. A pollutant is defined as any substance, when present in excess is harmful to living organisms. In other words, it is defined as the presence of biological agents and toxic chemicals in groundwater that exceed what is naturally found in the water and may cause a hazard to human health and/or the environment. In simple words, Water pollution occurs when undesirable foreign substances are introduced into natural water. Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities. In fact, today billions of people are facing the problem of water pollution especially in the developing world. The clean drinking water is scarce which are free disease causing substances or organisms. About 20% of worlds population has no access to disease free clean drinking water. Another 20% population of the world suffers from water born diseases due to poor sanitation conditions and about two million people are killed annually. Majority of the sufferers are children under 5 years. Chemical pollution of the water is a budding problem worldwide, affecting almost all the countries. The important chemical pollutants are toxic metals such as lead or mercury; agricultural chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers and acid rain. Industrial, municipal and Agricultural processes release chemical pollutants which contaminate water bodies. Characteristics of potable water It should be colourless, odourless and tasteless. It should be free from turbidity and other suspended impurities. It should be free from germs, bacteria and other pathogenic organisms. It should not contain toxic dissolved impurities, such as heavy metals, pesticides, etc. It should have a pH in the range 7-8.5. It should be moderately soft, having harness preferably in the range 50-100 ppm. Its hardness should not be above 150 ppm. It should be aesthetically pleasant. It should not be corrosive to the pipelines and should not cause any incrustations in the pipes. It should not stain clothes. Water pollutants There are several classes of water pollutants which can pollute surface water or groundwater. Important classes are: Oxygen-demanding waste Pathogenic, or disease-causing, microorganisms Nutrients Oil Toxic substances Synthetic organic chemicals Heavy metals Radioactive materials Sediment Thermal pollution (nonmaterial form) Oxygen-Demanding Waste Oxygen demanding waste includes domestic and animal sewage, bio-degradable organic compounds and industrial wastes from food-processing plants, meat-packing plants, slaughter houses, paper and pulp mills, tanneries etc.., as well as agricultural run-off. All these wastes undergo degradation and decomposition by bacterial activity in presence of dissolved oxygen (D.O). This waste is decomposed by oxygen-requiring bacteria (aerobic bacteria). When huge populations of decomposing bacteria are converting these wastes it can deplete oxygen levels in the water. This causes other organisms in the water, such as fish, other marine animals, and marine plants to die. The optimum D.O. in natural waters is 4-6 ppm, which is essential for supporting aquatic life. Any decrease in this D.O value is an index of pollution. The quantity of oxygen utilized for bacterial decomposition is the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). It is commonly used measure in water-quality management. A high BOD measure indicates the presence of large quantity of decaying organic matter in the water. Usually natural sources such as fallen leaves as well as agricultural activities and sewage are the major sources of organic matter in streams and rivers. Pathogenic Organisms Pathogenic microbes or microorganisms are main biological pollutants. These include pathogenic microorganisms which may enter the water along with sewage and other wastes and may cause tremendous damage to public health. These microbes, comprising mainly of viruses and bacteria, can cause dangerous water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio and infectious hepatitis in humans. It is difficult to monitor pathogenic microbes directly. Usually human fecal coliform bacteria are used to monitor the biological contamination of water and as a standard measure of pollution. Fecal coliform bacteria are usually harmless and are part of the normal constituents of human intestines, and are found in all human waste. However, Escherichia coli have been responsible for human illnesses and deaths. The very young and old are most vulnerable to the ravages of the disease, which can damage the kidneys Waterborne disease epidemics have killed thousands of people in U.S. cities. Such epidemics were controlled by separating sewage water and drinking water and by treating drinking water before consumption. Unfortunately, in poor countries, billions of people are exposed to water born diseases. For example, an epidemic of cholera broke out in October of 2010 in Haiti. Nutrients Water pollution is also caused by the nutrients released by human activity. Phosphorus and nitrogen are two important nutrients which are released from a variety of materials, including fertilizers, detergents, and the products of sewage treatment plants. The concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus in streams is related to land use. Forested land has the lowest concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen, while the highest concentrations are found in agricultural areas, such as fertilized farm fields and feedlots. Urban areas can also add phosphorus and nitrogen to local waters, particularly where wastewater-treatment plants discharge treated waters into lakes, rivers, or other water bodies. These plants are useful in eliminating organic pollutants and pathogens, but nutrients pass through the system. Increased concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus in water result in cultural eutrophication which is a process characterized by a rapid increase in the abundance of plant life, particularly algae. Blooms of algae form thick mats that sometimes nearly cover the surface of the water in fresh water ponds and lakes. These thick algae mats block sunlight to plants below and those plants eventually die. In addition, the algae also consume oxygen as they decompose, and results in lowering the oxygen content of the water which may result the fish and aquatic animals to die as well. In the marine environment, nutrients in Algae-contaminated beach near shore waters may cause blooms of seaweed, referred to as marine algae, to flourish. The marine algae become a nuisance when they are torn loose and accumulate on beaches. Algae may also damage or kill coral in tropical areas. Oil pollution may take place because of oil spills from cargo oil tankers on the seas, losses during off-shore exploration and production of oil, accidental fires in ships and oil tankers. Oil discharged into surface water (i.e., rivers, lakes, and the ocean) has caused major pollution problems. The largest oil discharges have usually involved oil-tanker accidents at sea. Oil spills leading to water pollution had very significant short-term impacts. Commercial fisheries, sport fisheries, and tourism were disrupted. In addition, many seabirds and mammals were lost. A large oil spill in 2006 was caused by the war in Lebanon, when a coastal power plant was bombed and over 100,000 barrels of fuel oil entered the Mediterranean Sea. Over half of Lebanons tourist beaches were polluted, including a popular public beach visited by people from the capital city Beirut. Oil on the shore A variety of methods have been used to try to control the spread of oil and clean it up after it has made landfall at a beach or wetland (Figure). The methods include deploying booms, skimmers, and chemical dispersants; burning the oil in water in situ; washing the oil off beaches; and vacuuming or picking up the oil. Sometimes, equipment as simple as shovels and road equipment is used to pick up oil from sandy beaches. The particular methods used depend upon the site, how much oil is present, and the accessibility of the site to necessary equipment.

Plastic Surgery - 2826 Words

Due Date: Persuasive Outline and Speech Presentation: Due in Dropbox (Outline) and on YouTube (Video) on or before TUESDAY, October 15, 2013 (11:50PM) Assignment Details: Purpose and Information: The persuasive speech is deliberative. It employs emotion, credibility, and logic to convince an audience that a narrowly defined action is beneficial. The persuasive proposition (thesis) is generally supported by two to three main ideas which employ about two to three pieces of evidence each. You will be using Monroe’s Motivated Sequence (p. 139-140 in the hard-copy textbook) to organize your speech. This organizational pattern focuses on the audience’s motivation and getting the audience to act. Following the steps in the sequence is†¦show more content†¦Use the sources you found while preparing your Annotated Bibliography Assignment. Keep these things in mind while preparing your presentation: Purpose Why are you talking about this subject to this group of people at this time and in this place? What will be accomplished as a result of this endeavor? What are your ethical obligations to this subject and this audience? Are you a good person speaking well? Supporting Materials What background materials have you selected to provide context for your speech? What types of verbal and visual evidence have you selected to support your thesis? Why? Have you evaluated the credibility of your evidence? Organization How have you arranged the supporting material to interest and involve this audience? How have you created a strategic argument? Delivery Rehearsal Have you developed a relationship with this speech? How do you plan to use your voice and body to make this speech effective? What is your rehearsal schedule? References and Works cited Cite all works according to APA style guidelines Persuasive Speech Sample Outline (the text in red does not need to be included in your outline) Name: Speech Title: The High Cost of Medication: How We Can Help Ourselves SpeechShow MoreRelatedPlastic Surgery And Cosmetic Surgery1496 Words   |  6 PagesPlastic surgery has become an extremely popular trend throughout the past years of the American culture. There are many reasons why people get plastic surgery, however, our society is the first to judge an individual for getting a procedure done. The controversy regarding plastic surgery is extremely relevant and has received major attention through celebrities, television, and social media. However, many individuals are unaware that there is a difference between both plastic surgery and cosmeticRead MoreCosmetic Surgery : Plastic Surgery1836 Words   |  8 PagesNorfolk, Va.† (Goleman, 1991). 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Despite the temptations of a perfect body and plastic surgery to fix imperfections, it is completely possible to maintain a positive sense of selfRead MorePlastic Surgery : Cosmetic And Cosmetic Surgery879 Words   |  4 PagesI) Definition Cosmetic and plastic surgery According to the merriam-Webster website, plastic surgery is another common word for Cosmetic Surgery which means, in general, a type of operation to improve parts of the body. The medical term of Plastic Surgery comes from Greek in 1638. Cosmetic is a type of ornamental surgery which helps patients to reform and rebuild part or demonstrative of their body in order to embellish their appearance and be beautiful. The defect for that could be congenitalRead MorePlastic Surgery Essay1788 Words   |  8 Pagesare paying thousands of dollars to have plastic surgery done to enhance this unreal beauty. Sadly, reality is that beauty is now seen as having the bigger breast, the perfect smile, zero body fat, and the perfectly chiseled nose. More and more people are turning to plastic surgery as a way to make them happy about their appearances and boost their self-esteem in a quick and easy process. But reality is, plastic surgery has major side effects. Plastic surgery causes more physical an d emotional damageRead MoreTeen Plastic Surgery2711 Words   |  11 PagesTeen Plastic Surgery Cosmetic plastic surgery has been increasing rapidly in the medical field, and making its way to the top of the beauty spectrum when it comes to what is important. Teenagers, especially adolescent girls, have been exploring the new ways to enhance their external appearance, and not with just lipstick and eye shadow. In the past three decades, surgeons, magazine editors, and book authors have been investigating the consequences, good and bad, of having cosmetic surgery at suchRead MoreCosmetic Surgery : Plastic Surgery And Teenagers2046 Words   |  9 PagesAccording to â€Å"Plastic Surgery Teenagers†, â€Å"teenagers who want to have plastic surgery usually have different motivations and goals than adults† (â€Å"Plastic Surgery For Teenagers Briefing Paper†). Thus, meaning that most young adults get cosmetic surgery, which is the reshaping of body parts to improve their physical characteristics. However, changing your physical appearance just because you wan t to or do not feel pretty enough should not be the case of spending all that money and time on a non-matured

List of Examples of Stylistic Devices - 1506 Words

Lexical stylistic devices Metaphor. Sustained metaphor O Rose, thou art sick! The invisible worm That flies in the night, In the howling storm, Has found out thy bed Of crimson joy, And his dark secret love Does thy life destroy. [William Blake â€Å"The sick rose† http://www.poetry-archive.com/b/the_sick_rose.html] novel metaphor: Time is jealous of you and wars against your lilies and your roses [Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray. Penguin books. 1994. P.30] Conventional metaphor If all the worlds a stage, where is the audience sitting? [by Steven Wright â€Å"Anatomy of English humor† Lev Barsky ЛÐ ¸Ã ±Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¼, ÐÅ"Ð ¾Ã' Ã ºÃ ²Ã °, 2012] Genuine methaphor The pulse of joy that beats in us at twenty, becomes sluggish [Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray.†¦show more content†¦[Maugham â€Å"The happy man†.†Short stories† Vintage books.1998. P.219]. Sentential epithet- Mrs. Vane glanced at her, and with one of those false theatrical gestures that so often become a mode of second nature to a stage-player, clasped her in her arms. [Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray. Penguin books. 1994. P.74] Oxymoron I knew Salvatore first when a boy of fifteen with a pleasant ugly face†¦ [Maugham â€Å"The Salvatore†.†Short stories† Vintage books.1998. P.157]. Hyperbole I like persons with no principles better than anything else in the world. [Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray. Penguin books. 1994. P.16] Periphrasis My dear Tina, we have paid our homage to Neptune. He will forgive us if we now turn our backs on him. [Aaron Kampman Jersey , west-country folksong: â€Å"As Sylvie Was Walking† http://whoced.net/pt/perilous-/blog.htm] Decomposition of a set phrase He saw a notice saying, KEEP TO THE WRONG [Colier J. â€Å"Half way to hell†. P. 335] I am of a roving disposition [Maugham â€Å"The happy man†.†Short stories† Vintage books.1998. P.157]. Euphemism You know I am not a champion of marriage. [Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray. Penguin books. 1994. P.97] Syntactical stylistic devices Stylistic inversion Had he not, guide-book in hand, traversed the forsaken streets of Pompeii? –[Evelyn Waugh â€Å"Decline and Fall†, P. 149] Detached structure And he walked slowly past again, along the river - an evening of clear, quietShow MoreRelatedUsage And Usage Of Alliteration1170 Words   |  5 Pagesin from stem to stern, or with a vowel sound that may differ from syllable to syllable (vocalic alliteration) as in each to all. Alliteration - Examples and Definition of Alliteration - Literary Devices literarydevices.net/alliteration/ Definition, Usage and a list of Alliteration Examples in common speech and literature. Alliteration is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the ... Alliteration | Definition of Alliteration by Merriam-Webster www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alliterationRead MoreJ. Galsworthy. the Broken Boot1021 Words   |  5 PagesA Sample of Complex Stylistic Analysis J. Galsworthy. The Broken Boot (E.M. Zeltin et. Al. English Graduation Course, 1972, pp.88-89: finishing with the words .. .walked side by side.) Text Interpretation The passage under analysis is taken from John Galsworthys story The Broken Boot. It is about an actor whose name is Gilbert Caister. For six months he had been without a job and a proper meal. He ran into a man whom he had come to know in a convalescent camp, a man who thought a lot ofRead MoreJ. Galsworthy. the Broken Boot1005 Words   |  5 PagesA Sample of Complex Stylistic Analysis J. Galsworthy. The Broken Boot (E.M. Zeltin et. Al. English Graduation Course, 1972, pp.88-89: finishing with the words .. .walked side by side.) Text Interpretation The passage under analysis is taken from John Galsworthys story The Broken Boot. It is about an actor whose name is Gilbert Caister. For six months he had been without a job and a proper meal. He ran into a man whom he had come to know in a convalescent camp, a man who thought aRead MorePrehistoric Art Study Guide883 Words   |  4 Pagesquestions will be multiple choice. Some will be accompanied by images while others will rely on your use of your knowledge without visual reference points. COVERAGE Visual Material: Selected from the works of art and architecture we have studied - see list below. These have all been discussed IN CLASS AS WELL AS IN THE TEXTBOOK or other readings. (If we do not cover all the works listed below in class, you will not be responsible for them on the test.) Information: You will be expected to know termsRead MoreMany Authors Can Write Beautiful Works, But Not Many Can1324 Words   |  6 Pagespossible. However, despite the overwhelming popularity of Do yle’s work, he is rarely taken seriously as a stylistic writer. He is regarded as a â€Å"first-rate storyteller (as opposed to a serious novelist)† (Hodgkinson). This said, Doyle does have a unique and effective style of writing that truly draws readers into the world of Sherlock Holmes. Through the use of seemingly basic style devices- sentence length and structure, series, and appositives- Doyle brings readers into his stories before theyRead MoreAnalysis Of The Article Lost On Translation By Lera Boroditsky1468 Words   |  6 PagesAlthough Boroditsky does not include more counterarguments, â€Å"Lost in Translation† is a well written article which demonstrates that languages indeed shape the way people think through her use of the Rhetorical Triangle, inductive logic, and her stylistic choices. In the article â€Å"Lost in Translation†, the author, Lera Boroditsky, maintains as her thesis that the languages we speak not only reflect or express our thoughts, but also shape the very thoughts we wish to express. Boroditsky begins the mainRead MoreStylistic Features in The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin Essay1174 Words   |  5 Pagesliterary work have always employed stylistic devices to pass their message, Kate Chopin was no exception. She employs a number of styles in her book, the story of an Hour. Just like any author she achieves storytelling in a simple and straight forward manner. Some of the stylistic devices she uses are: description, internal monologue, authorial intrusion contrast, figurative expressions, symbolism among others. This paper discusses the use of stylistic features in passing the message toRead MoreThe Great Gatsby - Stylistic Devices1866 Words   |  8 PagesChapter One In Chapter One, F. Scott Fitzgerald mainly uses detail to introduce the setting and characters. For example, when introducing the main setting of the book, he describes his house as squeezed between two huge places that rented for twelve or fifteen thousand a season. (9). One of these houses was Gatsbys. This detail gives the reader an idea of what kind of town this was, and what kind of people lived in it. Fitzgerald also uses detail to introduce characters. When introducingRead MoreLiterary Devices in Pride and Prejudice8198 Words   |  33 Pagesthe Lexical Stylistic devices (Metaphor, metonymy, irony, simile, epithet) in the novel â€Å"Pride and Prejudice† by Jane Austen† DIPLOMA PAPER Scientific Supervisor: E. B. Jumakeeva Done by: Satarova Rahat, group: A08-2 Contents: Pages: Introduction Chapter I. General survey of Stylistic Devices I.1 Historical background of Style and Stylistics Devices I.2 Types of Stylistic Devices ChapterRead MoreWhat it is Like to Live in Paris in the Article, See Paris the Real Parisians Do, from The Arizona Republic1129 Words   |  5 Pagesgraceful Paris is which also gives the text its appreciative and admiring tone. Thus, this makes the reader feel proud if they are from Paris. The readers can also feel grateful because of the beauty described in Paris. The author uses various stylistic devices which include imagery, onomatopoeia, allusions, symbolism, brackets and signs. â€Å"There is traffic, there is noise, there is filth on the streets†( line 6, Nilsen) express Paris through the sense of sight, sound and smell. Imagery is also created

The Long Term free essay sample

The answer to the question of whether Hitler or Stalin was worse is never simple, taking into consideration not only pure numbers, but also the reasons behind the killing, the killing methods, the targets of the killing, and finally the long-term effects of their regimes. While Stalin killed larger numbers, he killed based on political ideology unlike Hitler, who killed people based on their inborn traits, such as religion, disabilities and sexuality. Whether hate killing or indiscriminate murder is worse, both men, if that word is even an applicable label for them, were terrible beyond the scope of anyone’s understanding so comparing their horrors is essentially impossible, since pure statistics cannot show the true amount of suffering each caused as too many variables exist and were not sufficiently documented. One of the possible ways to subjectively compare the two and further understand them both multidimensionally, would be to compare their lasting positive or negative e ffects on the modern world. World War II had possibly the largest influence on Covert Intelligence since the invention of long-range communications such as the radio. The advances made in spy craft in the WWII and Cold War Era are so immense that they completely changed the intelligence game, for the better. Everyone was spying on everyone, with covert operatives in very high positions of other their enemies’ governments, which created a global distrust but also brought about some of the best intelligence agencies the world has ever seen, such as the CIA (born from the OSS) and the NSA. One can argue, in the Orwellian light, that Big Brother’s power increasing is not a positive effect, and that this era spawned such extensive espionage that the world will never truly know privacy again. Spy agencies are not the only culprits in this phenomenon, media has turned greatly to investigative journalism, and are more able to check the power of politicians as well as keep them honest. Of course, both sid es are to blame in this situation, so it does not really help with the question of comparative evil. In the aftermath of the Holocaust, people came together: to mourn their losses, to prevent further religion based killing, and to rebuild their countries. This new sense of unity brought about a wave of anti-racism in America and Western Europe, which hoped to prevent further massacres and effectively decreased anti-Semitism’s power through western society. This phenomenon continues to today, where discussions of the Holocaust spark compassion for the millions who died, due to the availability of anecdotes proving its treachery. On the other hand, Stalin’s victims are not as readily remembered, though they were more numerous that Hitler’s victims, as Stalin’s victims were not concentrated in one religion and culture. Since the USSR was extensive and made up of many different peoples, which Stalin killed indiscriminately, there was no single group that tried to keep track of all the deaths, and with such an extravagant number of deaths, entire families, ne ighborhoods, even regions died at once, leaving no one to maintain their memories. The memories engraved in the minds of Holocaust survivors and their families managed to created a metaphorical safe haven that has lasted until now, which Stalin’s victims would not even need, as the ideology causing their deaths died with Stalin. In a positive light, this increased sense of unity remains to this day and has brought many of the remaining Jews together, causing a large number of European Jews to immigrate to Israel, and which has been greatly beneficial to its continuing survival in the unstable region. Unforrtunately, the largest noticeable effect of these two regimes results from the millions of deaths. A common description of someone prodigious, such as a life-saving scientist, a world-renowned artist, or an excellent leader, is that they are â€Å"one in a million.† With the approximated death toll of WWII in excess of 60 million, with Hitler’s and Stalin’s victims making up the large majority of that, how many â€Å"one in a million† people were lost? Sixty? More? Where could humanity be, as a civilization, had we not lost all those people? Perhaps the scientist who could have cured cancer died under Hitler’s rule, so perhaps the death toll should also include all the people who died of cancer after the war. Perhaps the next Picasso, Renoir, Cezanne, Dali, Mozart, Bach, Shakespeare or Faulkner was executed for anti-communist activities. My own grandfather, Vladislav (name changed), was arrested for taking part in anti-Stalinist protests. In t hat time, offenders were often executed for that very crime, so Vladislav was in luck, and so was the artistic community. After his arrest, Vladislav fled to Switzerland and then eventually to the United States and became one of the best artistic and restorative book binders in the world. Among his restorations are first-edition Shakespeares, and an original Gutenberg Bible; his artistic pieces range from miniatures which fit inside walnuts to 7 foot fish shaped novels, and his unrivaled skills won him the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Guild of Book Workers upon his death in 2012. World War II threatened the existence of not only Vladislav’s artwork, but also that of his innovative bookbinding techniques. Unfortunately, for every survivor such as Vladislav, thousands of equally talented people died and were unable to contribute their abilities to civilization. Of course, in this situation, it is impossible to recognize which of the two evils, right of left, caused more long term damage in this situation since Stalin killed more people, but Jews, the subject of Hitler’s killing, are often over-represented in the world of arts and sciences. On a more unfortunate note, Hitler followers still exist today, in the form of neo-Nazis. Fortunately, while the number of anti-Semites remains high, the number of Nazis, neo-Nazis and Hitler followers are an extreme minority with no public support due to the amount of innocent blood on their hands. Thanks to the atrocity that was the Holocaust, people are unwilling to follow any regime that is even comparable to Nazism. In the modern day, brutal politicians have adopted the terms communist and Nazi as insults designed to tear their opponents down, exploiting the sheer fear these groups instill in people’s minds to associate their opponents with terror. On the exact opposite side of the remaining Nazi’s are those who claim the Holocaust never happen and demean the horrors that so many millions struggled through. Their following is also limited due to the profuse proof of the atrocities that occurred under Hitler, but their existence in and of itself is a slap in the fa ce to any relative of any one who lived (or died) through the Holocaust. These â€Å"non-believers† may not be direct off-spring of the Holocaust, but they threaten one of the only positive long term aspects of Hitler’s regime: unity. In Orwell’s famous novel, â€Å"1984†, news was rewritten to suit those in power and prevent a revolution, and those who choose to deny the existence of the Holocaust are very much attempting to hide that part of history, which is very typical of a totalitarian mindset. While Hitler and Stalin are both long dead, the effects of their revolting actions live on. In the long term, Hitler’s regime may have decreased the numbers of the Jewish community, and possibly set the world back fifty years developmentally due to that loss, but it strengthened minority groups’ unity, hopefully decreasing the odds of another massacre of the Holocaust magnitude in the modern world. Stalin’s regime on the other hand broke up the Eastern Block and decimated its population. Both these fiends contributed to the intense rise in global espionage, and perhaps, had World War II and then the Cold War not happened, the United States would not be phone tapping their closest allies and the NSA would not be so out of control. Although the world would be so much better off had Hitler been accepted into art school, and had Marx never written his famous manifesto, we cannot forget that these treacheries occurred so history does not repeat itself as it so often does.

Utopian Society Essays (1538 words) - Social Constructionism

Utopian Society According to the curriculum of our Athens to New York course, we are supposed to study certain themes that are carried through history and literary works of various eras. In addition, there are some recurring themes that also become evident, especially in some of the more recent works that we have studied. Works like Cornel West's Race Matters, Elie Wiesel's Night, and Franz Kafka's The Trial, carry many similar themes, and teach us readers some important lessons about ourselves as the human race. Through each work's message, we can study "what it means to be: human, a member of a community, and moral, ethical, or just, as well as how individuals respond to differences in race, class, gender, and ethnicity in relation to action" (this quote taken from one Bob Anderson). While I dare not attempt to categorize each of the meanings that the authors gave to their books, I can find one major similarity. In each of the books, the author is in search of a Utopian society that does not contain all of the faults of our modern day society. Charles Darwin heavily believed in "survival of the fittest" in his work with evolution. In the society that we have created in our world today, one can see this belief holding true. Survival and all around relations between different groups in general has become dependent on five little letters. These letters spell out "power." One who holds the "power," seems to try and lord over those who do not. This struggle over power has become one of, if not the, reason for the major differences between groups. While the battle over power rages on, a Utopian society will continue to be an impossible goal. Allow me to explain by use of the books I have earlier highlighted. Franz Kafka's Night tells the story Joseph K., a man who must defend himself against the courts of the day, while lacking any and all information about his case. The man finds himself suddenly arrested one day and placed on trial for a crime he does not know he committed. The man becomes increasingly frustrated as he finds no one capable of helping him develop a case to defend himself with. No one can even provide him with any information about why he is on trial. With no where to go, and no one turn to, Joseph discovers that the justice system that was designed to help the people has worked against him, and his situation is utterly hopeless. Kafka makes a strong about how modern bureaucracy and totalitarianism has become so extreme that it harms the people that it is designed to protect. Justice has become jaded by its own self and its own methods. A government is created by the people, for the people, but has instead gained the power to lord over the people. Here we see the power switch from man to the system. Joseph has become alienated from normal society because of crimes that he does not know he committed, displaying the corruption of the justice system. This nightmare is not entirely too far from our modern day reality. According to a well-known book that discusses this topic, Urban Administration-Management Politics and Change, "Contemporary technological society places a heavy burden upon the individual to adapt to a large-scale, highly complex, and often times impersonal bureaucratic environment. For a substantial number of the members of the modern mass societies this burden has become the source of pervasive feelings of anxiety and estrangement now fashionably termed 'alienation.'" (Bent & Rossum, p. 201) Man now has the choice of falling into line and being another "cog in the wheel," or finding himself alienated from the rest of society who presumably does. In this dark and dreary portrait that Kafka paints of our modern world, a community is formed when everyone agrees to accept his role, be equal with everyone else. It seems that being human is more of being part of a system and being like everyone else, than being an individual. In order to be morally just, one must follow the laws and the system, even if they work against you, rather than for you. Men's minds have been warped to believe that justice is merely a state of mind. Elie Wiesel searches for his Utopian society amid the horrors of the Holocaust. His book Night, gives an autobiographical account of his real-life nightmares during World War II. He had seen things that no one should be forced to see; things that may have

Ethics of Cloning

Ethics of Cloning Introduction Animal cloning became recognized as a commercial venture in 2001, with the intention to improve the quality of herds. It is one of the many ways in the field of genetics that has been used to improve and advance the quality of life. However, serious scrutiny from several advocacy groups considers the venture as a violation against fundamental environment and ethic principles.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ethics of Cloning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More ‘Dolly’ was a sheep and the first living organism to be cloned, in 1997 in Scotland by Ian Wilmut and colleagues. This invention was associated with scientific and ethical implications hence, raised a lot of interest and concern from the public. The University of Hawaii subsequently came up with a process through which mass cloning could occur, while using mice. In both cases, somatic cell nuclear transfer was used. Scientists coined the term cloning in reference to duplication of biological material. It is important to understand that, contrary to what the media reports on cloning, with a focus on reproductive cloning, there are a variety of cloning technologies besides the production of genetic twin of an organism. This paper will give insight into the various technologies behind cloning, will help in understanding what animal and human cloning are all about, and subsequently present an exhaustively argued out ethical stand. The cloning of Dolly was received with great attention, and was seen as a theoretical possibility of human cloning. However, it was a shocking revelation that led to the proposal of various bans on human cloning. Some scholars have taken up a balanced approach based on the pros and cons of cloning and have argued out that cloning should be regulated rather than banned. This regulation would be based on one’s intention of using the cloning process because, one cannot ignore the fact that cloning is a solution for infertility, as well as, protecting endangered species (Federation of Veterinarians of Europe 4-5). It is important to understand that cloning is not associated with the production of a clone that has the same size and age as its donor, but rather, it is a form of twinning referred to as ‘delayed twining’. One great misunderstanding associated with a clone as we shall see is that which states that a clone is an exact replica of the donor, while in actual sense, this is not the case. Various types of Cloning To start with, there is recombinant DNA technology or DNA cloning, gene cloning, or molecular cloning (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs Para 3-4). This refers to the movement of the selected DNA segment from one organism, to a genetic factor characterized by self-replication, such as bacterial plasmid (picture below). Bacterial plasmids often play a great role in the production of multiple and similar copies of a particular gene. T his helps in generating enough material for a detailed study.Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Reproductive cloning, the popular one and which continues to be a contentious topic, is a kind of cloning that involves generating an animal that has got the same nuclear DNA as its host (the donor animal). The process used is referred to as somatic cell nuclear transfer, and it was the method used to create Dolly (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs Para 3-5). Chemicals and electric current are used to ensure that cell division takes place. The uterus is used as the medium for gestation for a cloned embryo, once it reaches a certain stage. While in uterus, gestation continues until the clone grows and develops into a full-term fetus for birth. The cloning of both humans and animals through reproductive cloning has not been accurate enough and is at the experimentation stage. Un til now, there is no one successful human clone that has been created. There is another kind of cloning known as therapeutic/embryo cloning and this is the type of cloning where human embryos are produced for research purposes. This cloning process is apparently similar to reproduction cloning, but in this case, the embryos are not implanted into a uterus/womb, rather, they are used to produce stem cells that are useful for studying human development and treatment of diseases. Therapeutic cloning involves the use of stem cells, whose purpose is well known in relation to organ/tissue transplant. Since this paper intends to focus on human and animal cloning, it will therefore talk about reproductive and therapeutic cloning because they both seem to cover the actual purpose of this paper: human and animal cloning. Animal Cloning Cloning of animals is a relatively new technology, whose role is to breed elite animals, and replace dead ones. Even though animal cloning was previously exerc ised, it only managed to catch the public’s attention in 1997. Animal cloning in the US is far more established compared with any other nation hence, the reason why the FDA recommends consumption of products from cloned animals (The Foods Standard Agency 4). In 2002, Dolly (seen in the picture below) appeared healthy and had given birth to six healthy lambs. It is presumed that it was during the very same year that Dolly radically suffered from lung cancer and arthritis.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ethics of Cloning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the scientist involved in producing Dolly said that a problem during the cloning process might have led to her development of arthritis in the hip and knee of her left hind leg at such a tender young age. According to the BBC news, most of the cloned animals had died before birth, or had been born with severe deformities. It is because of these kinds of revelation that concerns over the health of animal clones that appear healthy, yet, may be having underlying genetic abnormalities have come up. In the case of Dolly, contrary to a sheep’s normal lifespan of 10-16 years, Dolly is said to have suffered an unforeseen and premature death. Some research says that Dolly might have been vulnerable to premature ageing (BBC News para 1-10). Dr, Dai Grove-White of the Faculty of Veterinary science at Liverpool University said that arthritis was not a common ailment in sheep, and neither was it well recognized. According to Professor Ian Wilmut, more research and data on animal cloning is required because the case with Dolly cannot be used to make a conclusive judgment. Currently, there are few quantitative studies to give a detailed analytical assessment of the health and welfare of cloned animals during their lifetime as productive organisms. Several confounding and causal factors are thought to have interfered with the assessment p rocess for the reported studies. It has been concluded that cloning is an inefficient process, associated with high failure rate with fatal outcomes (BBC News para 1-10). Farm animals, especially sheep and cattle, are mainly cloned for the purpose of preserving the breeding capacity of genetically elite animals. In addition, this ensures that loss against valuable genetic and characteristic features is insured. It is the males that are normally cloned. Sheep and cattle, followed by goat, rabbits, pigs and horses were among the first mammalian species to be cloned. Their economic importance, as well as, the well-developed assisted reproduction techniques made this possible. Pig cloning, which entails the use of worthwhile boars, helps in artificial insemination, and in evaluating the genetic quality of the pigs through a detailed analysis of the carcass. In European farms, animal breeders indulge themselves in the business of selecting parents of highest quality for the next generati on by choosing from a diverse and distinct European livestock, where the market is highly competitive.Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Despite the fact that there is no practical benefit at present associated with cloning at the farm level, breeding companies are using it at the forefront of worldwide research and development (Federation of Veterinarians of Europe 5). Cloning can be expected to be a valuable process with time in as far as, the production of high value breeding lines that are useful in broadening the elite pedigree stock are concerned. The escalation in value may be agricultural, encompassing increased performance with regard to food conversion and growth rate; ameliorated health and welfare characterized by resistance to infectious disease and lowered incidence of non-infectious diseases such as mastitis; good conformation marked by reduced prevalence and incidence of disease, and aesthetic value (Federation of Veterinarians of Europe 1-8). Animal cloning is seen as a means of pet replacement, where owners can easily replace their pet animals. The use of animals or cloning however calls for respect for their intrinsic or inherent value to avoid inflicting too much suffering on them. As at the beginning, humans were given the responsibility of ensuring that they care for the animals, and this is what they ought to ensure they abide by, even during cloning (Federation of Veterinarians of Europe 6). Human Cloning There are no certain results that show that it is technically feasible to clone humans. The continued low success rates associated with animal cloning regardless of the tremendous effort put forward to alter the procedures suggest this. In addition, the failure to clone primates also proves this. Safety problems are the reason for the current prohibition on cloning. The limited success despite numerous modifications on procedures for each species, and involving many animals, has further led to this prohibition. This is because, for the cloning process to be successful with humans, it would involve producing hundreds of ova for research, and treating women with hormones that are not risk-free, and this is highly unethical. Even though preliminary animal evidence would prove to be successful, the first attempts at human cloning would be experimental. As an experimental research process, the ethical principles of human research should be looked into, before endorsing the cloning process. In 2001, a breakthrough in human cloning was realized when the Advanced Cell Technology in Worcester, Massachusetts reported to having successfully cloned human embryos through therapeutic cloning. The report on human cloning was developed six months after the President’s Council on Bioethics discussed, researched and deliberated on it. Unanimously, the council decreed that reproductive cloning aimed at producing children was not safe, and in accordance with the stipulated ethical principles of human research hence, should be banned by federal law. On the basis of the ethical principles of respect for human freedom, dignity and equality, five major categories of concern with regard to reproductive cloning were identified. These are (Iltis 72-73) Identity and individuality of cloned children Perception of cloned children as objects Prospects of new eugenics Implication on family Implication on societal values In addressing the issue of ethical principles, there is a need to understand the reasons behind cloning. Unfortunately, the media is very good at creating misunderstanding and is the facilitator for the misunderstanding on replica of a clone. Despite the fact that good reasons for cloning may be laid down, human cloning is the height of technologies. Creation of man by another man is an insult to God and for this simple reason alone, human cloning will always be opposed. The strong opposition towards cloning mainly rests on the notion that cloning is unnatural. Prior to cloning, there were medical and technological interventions revolving around human reproduction that entailed segregation of sexes and sterilization in the period o f state eugenics, artificial insemination during the 1940s and 1950s and family planning, in vitro fertilization (IVF) and related assisted reproduction technologies that included pre-implantation genetic diagnosis and surrogacy in the 1980s and 1990s, and contraception, legalized abortion, medicalization of pregnancy and birth in the 1960s and 1970s (Human genetics Alert 5-8). Compared with cloning which forces the occurrence of an unnatural reproduction event, these earlier interventions in reproduction work with, and offer solutions to sexual reproduction. The unnaturalness of cloning, conflicts with a given set of moral and social meanings thus, is strongly contested against. The element of ‘naturalness’ is perceived with positivity, while the ‘artificial’ element is considered inferior. As such, cloning, which characterized by artificialness, receives a negative attitude and reception. It is because of this very same the reason that moratoria were arti culately outlined. Most of the religious philosophers have stated their opposition against cloning, claiming that it is wrong to interfere with God’s creation. Ethics in Cloning Despite the fact that cloning may never become a globally used procedure, it is hypothetically recommended for couples that cannot either produce a sperm, or an ovum, but wish to have a child that is genetically related to either one of them without having to use sperm or ovum donors. Basing on people’s attitudes, reproduction is thought to continue being sexual, as this is much cheaper, easier and more fun. Very needy couples, those who are desperate for a child, are likely to use this method and proponents of cloning do not see the need of denying such couples this process. This is because, contrary to a majority of people’s beliefs, the cloned child would be a source of joy for such a couple (Human genetics Alert 8). The National Research Act (Pub. L. 93-348) was endorsed in 1974 as a way of protecting human subjects for use in biomedical and behavioral research. Various ethical principles were identified by the National Commission for Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research to govern the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research. Since cloning utilizes medical procedures and technology, whose implication requires professional care due to the genetic and psychological conditions that result from such procedures, it is said to fall within the medical umbrella. The ethics of research as stipulated by the National Research Act should be carefully evaluated, and especially the role of physicians in practice. The Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs is charged with the responsibility of determining whether; physicians should participate in human cloning, as well as the legality of the process (Office of Human Subjects Research para 1-2). The many embryos created by nuclear transfer fail to undergo a normal development process as seen Dolly’s case where 277 attempts had to be carried out. The highest published success rate of this process has been at around 5%. In a majority of experiments, the success rate is usually less than 1%, and irrespective of the many attempts, dogs or primates have been difficult to clone (Human Genetics Alert 2). loned embryos will mainly die at the early stages of embryonic development, or spontaneously abort before the full gestation period has been attained. As has been evidently discussed in this paper, despite the fact that a clone is born, most of the clones are abnormal and die almost immediately after birth, due to the various physiological and anatomical problems that vary from one species to another. The large offspring syndrome is the main problem, where clones are much larger than normal, and are mainly delivered through caesarean section. Successfully cloned animals like Dolly, are apparently healthy and capable of reproducing healthily and normally. Unfortunately, there seems to be some subtle problems that prevail in these successfully cloned animals, and that are caused by disturbed gene expression, which is likely to manifest itself as the animals continue to age (Gicquel 1338-1341; Jaenisch para 2-6). Scientists claim that reproductive cloning is associated with some benefits. For one, reproductive cloning could be used to create animals with special qualities. In this sense, mass production of drug-producing animals or animals whose genes have been modified could act as avenues through which human diseases could be studied. In addition, repopulation of endangered species, as well as animals with breeding difficulties is achieved through reproductive cloning. The gaur, a wild ox and an endangered species, gained recognition as the first endangered animal to be generated and this was in 2001. During the same year, a healthy baby mouflon, an endangered sheep species, was successfully created by scientists in Italy (Federation of Veterinari ans of Europe 5). It is obvious that reproductive cloning is not without some benefits, but the ethical issues surrounding it are equally significant. According to a recent survey in America, 64% were against the idea of cloning, and 63% said that they would not consider buying cloned food albeit safe. As indicated above, it is obvious that cloning is associated with so many benefits. However, this does not mean that cloning can be ethically approved. Cloning is a very serious issue revolving around various aspects in society like religion, which is defined by certain rules and regulations that cover the right to life, and creation. Life is precious and should not be perceived as a property or item that can be easily owned and sold. This is actually what cloning is about, since it involves objectification and co-modification of animals and humans, thereby treating them as mere machines that can be easily manufactured. Cloning is also considered to exacerbate problems affecting anima ls (Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production para 11-15). Reports made by the media on the advances involved in cloning, imply that cloning is a means of manufacturing â€Å"armies of programmed killers, copying academic geniuses or sport stars, and recreating loved ones that are already dead† (Kass 23-60). The highly held perception of human clones is that they are the exact replica of the donor organism. It is unarguably true that human clones are identical is as far as nuclear genes are concerned. However, when it comes to twinning as is the case with natural monozygotic twins, other confounding factors apart from mere identical genes are involved. A clone is different from its donor in terms of personality and character as a result of environment, and circumstances that define its life. In human cloning, there is no sharing of genomes to produce a hybrid organism and this may be fatal if the donor organism is susceptible to a certain disease as it only means th at the clone will suffer from the same. Cloning therefore should not be considered an alternative to mortality or terminal illness, because terminal illnesses are passed down to the clone. The natural process of procreation as established during creation is enough to establish a balance within the ecosystem (Kass 23-60). The ethical issue in this approach is that the clone is deprived of its autonomy. People think that a clone is the same as the cloned individual and therefore, is linked to giving the donor individual a second chance to life, while in the actual sense, this is not the case. No one person can be entirely replaced by another once he/she dies, and it is precisely for this very reason that sport stars and academic geniuses cannot be replicated through generation of clones. Despite the fact that cloning is characterized by persistence of certain genotypes and resultant phenotypic traits, it does not bring about replication (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641) . Creation of a genetic twin, whose form of demarcation is an element of somatic cell nuclear transfer cloning is said to be troubling and fascinating. As indicated by Schwartz (195-206), various cultures throughout the world and as dictated by history, have enjoyed the intrigue derived from the phenomenon of identical twins. The reason for the fascination is quite easy. If a person witnesses the experience with the identical twins, it is evident that it clearly demonstrates how different these twins are, in person, as well as in personality. Observation of identical twins on the other hand makes one intrigued by the resemblance, expecting that the two identical individuals would have the same abilities and personality since according to the human intuition, body and personality are always intertwined (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). Reproductive cloning is linked to a scientifically inaccurate and instinctive fear of multitudes of similar bodies, where each body ho uses personalities that are considered to be somewhat â€Å"less unique, less than distinct, and less autonomous than the normal† (Schwartz 195-206). Identity and Individuality of Cloned Children Cloning of humans violates the freedom of uniqueness of an individual. An individual, who feels that he/she is a genetic copy of another person, may undergo intense compelling pressure to become like, or distinct from its progenitor (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). The risks that are linked to developmental abnormalities in cloned organisms have led to the preclusion of cloning for the time being. Even with homozygous twins, who share the same genes, they are distinct and not identical and therefore, each person has the right to a unique unrepeated genome. Lack of autonomy is associated with limited life choices resulting from constrain from self, and expectation from others (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). There is a strong fear that human cloning i s associated with a less-than-autonomous child. This is because; creation of cloned soldiers has led to a diminished physical individuality and psychological autonomy. The misplaced belief of cloning has actually made people to believe they can determine behavior and personality hence are able to produce â€Å"armies of co-operative workers, beatific saints, or crazed soldiers† (Kass 3-17). Human cloning is feared to be more or less like an art because the total genetic blueprint of cloned individuals is pre-selected and pre-determined. In this light, human cloning disregards God’s status as the creator and the process of creation is seen, as another man-made activity. The ideal idea of parenting is that which appreciates both the differences and similarities between the parents and their children. This kind of parenting is associated with care and teaching, which leads to general, as well as serendipitous developments in their children. When someone seeks a clone, his mentality of a child is misplaced since the parent-clone considers the child-clone as an exact copy of him/herself and will not appreciate the distinctness that comes with it. As opposed to good parenting which is characterized by a strong parent-child relationship, cloning is fundamentally at odds with unconditional â€Å"love, acceptance and openness, all of which are characteristics of good parenting† (Kass 23-60). It is evident that parenting exercises some form of control over off springs through varied means such as contraception, but reproductive cloning on the other hand is seen to have total specific control over not only a child’s development, but his/her genome as well. This makes the reproduction cloning process to be seen as a manufacturing process. Cloned children are generated based on the donor’s choice and purpose, hence are synonymous to manufactured objects which are produced to serve an intended purpose. On the other hand, procreation gives rise to very unique beings with certain skills that are special to every individual. Despite the fact that cloning may act as a solution to childless parents, the cloned child can never measure up to a child that is as a result of procreation. Human and animal cloning, are not in accordance with the natural law of creation. Human beings have taken it upon themselves to create, which according to religious ethical decree, is not acceptable. God is, and will always be the sole creator. Critics of cloning believe that cloning is a means of playing God. According to Kass’ argument, genetic novelty and uniqueness that is apparent with sexual reproduction is very crucial. This is because; a sexually produced child is free from various setbacks revolving around a cloned child such as societal discrimination, and a feeling of being misplaced in the society. The sexually produced child on the other hand demands respect and equality from other people, and is not seen as some objects th at should function as expected (Kass 17-26). Psychosocial Harm Human cloning is considered to bring about psychosocial harm to individuals in relation to their autonomy. A clone from an individual with known genetic ‘predispositions and conditions’ is perceived to possess the same ‘predispositions and conditions’ (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). Unfortunately, what people do not realize is that this is a mere hypothesis that cannot be supported by factual evidence. Gilbert Meilaender (Meilaender cited in National Bioethics Advisory Commission 631) commented that: Our children begin with a kind of genetic independence of us, their parents. They replicate neither their father nor their mother. That is a reminder of the independence that we must eventually grant to them and for which it is our duty to prepare them. To lose even in principle this sense of the child as gift will not be good for children. Cloning is associated with predicted gene tic disposition based on the parent’s genetic predisposition as indicated by the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (630) and this being the case, various questions concerning the autonomy and best interests of the child born are felt unanswered. A clone-child is able to see what is expected of him/her if raised by the clone parent and as such, experiences great pressure that forces him/her to live up as per expectations. This deprives the clone child of its freedom and uniqueness in becoming what he/she is, since he/she seeks to become what the world perceives him/her to be. In an example of cloning a sports star, the cloned sports star would hope that his/her clone would be a reflection of his/her characteristics (Kass 23-60). When such a clone-child does not live up to what is expected of him/her as a sports star, he/she is considered a failure, who has not capitalized on his/her genetic gift. Despite the fact that some clone-children feel confident about their inheren t abilities, others may experience limitation on their genetic lot. Failure to perform certain tasks binds the clone-child to the abilities of their clone-parents, and this results in interference of the clone-child’s perception of self and subsequently results in escalated external pressures. Human cloning would therefore lead to destruction of the natural balance that result from natural procreation since it would psychologically diminish the unlimited potential of new human beings, and in turn exacerbate disturbing intentions for having children (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). The probability that some of the human clones are created from cells obtained from individuals, whose permission has not been sought, is a great ethical concern. If such a probability became a reality, the moral foundations of therapeutic relationships based on personal respect, trust and the physician’s fiduciary responsibility to benefit a patient would be violated. Accordi ng to Opinion 8.08 of the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs on informed consent, the council has stipulated that a patient should make his/her own decisions regarding the kind of treatment to be used, where procedures for reproduction are part. When informed consent is not exercised, then it only means that a physician does not respect an individual’s right to privacy and reproductive freedom (Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs Opinion 8.08). It is because of this ethical principle that cloning should not be carried out without first receiving the consent of an individual. Reproductive cloning is a mere invention, which is at logger-heads with almost all of the ethical principles defining human research. In human cloning, there are two parties involved, the donor, and the clone. Therefore, it is important that both parties are content with this cloning process, far from the highly held and appreciated natural process of procreation. This being the case, the effect of human cloning on a child should be evaluated. Critics of human cloning are of the view that the legal and social status of cloned children has not been clearly defined. The disparity between the child’s genetic blueprint and its social identity is a threat to family stability because it is not clear as to whether the cloned child is qualified for reference as a sibling to a child born through the natural way of procreation. The cloned child’s identity is entirely endangered, since he/she is not aware of his/her identity as well. In addition, the society may undermine the clone-child and this would be an additional torture to the psychological status of this cloned child. Physical Harm Cloning is associated with potential for physical harm. Despite the fact that there are convincing cases that favor reproductive cloning, the fundamental principle of injunction as defined by medical ethics and political philosophy should be achieved. The Hippocratic canon and the Nure mberg code, 1946-49 indicate this. However, substantial risks, to the fetus and physical well being of a child that are as a result of reproductive cloning are far much more weighty, compared with the benefits associated with it (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). The Dolly reproductive technique became successful in 277 attempts. The use of this technique in humans is marked by hormonal manipulation of the ovum donor, which is a potential risk factor. The outcome on the other hand can be very serious and fatal, resulting in developmental abnormalities and multiple miscarriages. As noted by John Robertson (Robertson 810-813), a Law professor, before NBAC on March 13, 1997: The first transfer (into a uterus) of a human (embryo) clone will occur before we know whether it will succeed. Some have argued therefore that the first transfers are somehow unethical because they involve experimentation on the resulting child and no one knows what is going to happen, and one is po ssibly leading to a child who could be disabled and have developmental difficulties. According to latest research on mammalian cloning, various defects that normally occur during reprogramming of an egg will not be seen until much later in life of the produced animal clone. The incidence of Dolly is one example; she had been suffering from lung cancer and crippling arthritis before her death (Will We Follow the Sheep 69, 70-72). In other cases, the defects are hideous and go unnoticed, resulting in spectacular and unanticipated deaths. Techniques used for cloning pose as potential hazards to developing individuals. According to the Human Embryo Research Panel of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1994 (1-2), the transfer of embryos into a woman’s uterus should be permitted only when, there is guarantee that no harm will be inflicted on the yet to be born child. Currently, there is no guarantee that this harm does not exist and therefore, the transfer of embryos into w omen’s uterus in not permitted. A lot of deaths have been witnessed among amphibian, lamb and mouse fetuses, and these show just how this technology does not provide certainty in as far as long-term safety is concerned. Human and animal cloning is not ethically justifiable because it violates most of the social and ethical considerations that individuals should consider when dealing with animals/people. Cloning does not respect human life, rather, based on the processes and procedures involved; it treats life like an object. In support of Zoloth’s conclusion, reproductive cloning would be abused by people since they would seek to produce a copy of their selves rather than play the crucial role of parenting a stranger to whom life has been given as stipulated by God, the divine creator. Every living being should be unique in its own special way but apparently, human and animal cloning violates this principle. This is attributed to disregard for diversity and ecosystem s urvival by this technology. As opposed to the established natural relationship between humans and nature, cloning fosters the split up from evolution, a natural process that is known to ameliorate the survival instincts of living organisms through diversity, and makes them stronger. Human cloning encourages destructive processes towards the ecosystem by deepening the alienation between two sets of species. An example is the continued destruction of the environment with the assumption that scientists would instigate the perpetuation of cloned trophy species in zoos (Andra para 5-8). Human cloning treats women as mere biological functions that provide ova and womb. This process destroys the basic relationships that are associated with the natural process of conception and delivery. The definition of parentage will totally change once human cloning becomes a success and as such, the bonds of parenthood will be radically ruptured. The element of human dignity is destroyed by human cloni ng. This is attributed to change in treatment and perception of humans from human beings to variables for experiments and test subjects that can be easily created, manufactured and destroyed (Andra, para 2). As stipulated in the Universal Declaration on Human Genome and Human Rights, human cloning is a violation against these rights. Reproduction of human beings should be a natural sexual process involving two factors (a male, and a female). However, with the invention of human cloning, it has become an asexual means of reproduction involving only one factor. This change is believed to stir up greater debate as it is feared that human cloning would reduce sexual reproduction to a manufacturing process. Human cloning does not have respect for human life, if it is to be assumed that human life begins at conception. Lawrence Nelson, an adjunct associate professor of philosophy at the Santa Clara University, supports this predisposition by implying that extracorporeal embryos are entitl ed to respect by the mere fact that they have life. Too many human embryos would be created and destroyed in the search for a successful clone. In such a case, disregard for human life is unethical as it is considered to endanger human life. However, Nelson suggests ways through which ethics can be applied in such a case. According to Nelson, respect to human embryos can be portrayed by, using the embryos as the last option for research; using the embryos for research if they have not attained the gastrulation stage by the time they are being used in research studies; not regarding the embryos as mere property, and not destroying them to pleasure (Andra para 7). In addition, the search for a successful clone in turn would not be a guarantee for a successful life since the clone is susceptible to numerous diseases that eventually result in the clone’s death. Implication on the Family Human cloning is perceived to affect the family. If a wife produces a clone of herself as a da ughter, this distorts the relationship between the father and the daughter. The introduction and endorsement of cloning therefore, is seen to interfere with the family unit. One philosopher wrote that cloning proved to be a major violation of the human nature characterized by â€Å"embodied, gendered, and engendering beings- and of social relations developed from this natural ground† (Kass 23-60). Human cloning would give rise to issues revolving around marital eligibility. In addition, courts would face difficulties trying to solve problems related to assisted reproduction. There is one particular example where a â€Å"court found a child conceived using assisted reproductive technologies to have no parents despite having eight individuals from which to choose† (In re Marriage of Buzzanca). Implication on Social Values If human cloning would be permitted across the globe, this would mean disruption to the interconnected web of â€Å"social values, institutions, pract ices† that offer support for the healthy growth and development of children (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). Human cloning would change the attitude of value towards one’s children as it would shift towards the ability of a child to meet parental expectations. Parents would love their children based on this ability, rather than for who they are. Love, loyalty, nurturing, and steadfastness are the values, which define natural parenthood and with a world of cloning, they would be replaced with avarice, vanity, and narcissism (Kass 23-60). The ability of man to produce/create living things would render him omnipotent, contrary to the highly held religious values that acknowledge God as the only omnipresent being. Human cloning would escalate the issue of scarce resources because, cloning makes use of the limited researchers and clinicians, who would be better positioned in handling more serious social and medical needs. Treating Individuals as Objects It i s feared that cloned children would be perceived as mere objects. As a mere object, one is not free to reach their full potential as individuals since they are governed by pressures resulting from other people’s desires and expectations. While talking about objectification of human beings, the paper refers to objectification as the tendency to disregard an individual’s desires or well-being. Rather, it is the control over an individual instead of engaging him/her in a mutual and respectful relationship. Alternatively, human cloning commodifies the resulting clones by treating them as commodities that can be easily bought, sold, or exchanged in a market place. Cloning, as opposed to other practices, such as genetic screening, or gene therapy, is intended to benefit the nucleus donor and not the cloned child. The other factor that makes the cloned child to be regarded as an object is due to its diminished physical uniqueness. Eugenic Concerns The use of eugenic was seen as a step towards selective breeding in agriculture. Eugenic programs oversimplify the role of genes in as far determining human traits and characteristics is concerned, yet, there is limited information on the correlation between genes and behavioral characteristics of successful and rewarding human lives. Furthermore, the minuscule information that is available indicates that an interaction between genes and the environment is essential for the development of successful and rewarding characters, and not merely due to genes as indicated by the eugenic programs. Cows are bred to increase yields, while sheep are bred to produce sheep with softer fleece, but, it would be unethical to breed superior humans. To start with, such a practice would only reveal, mankind’s lack of respect for human life and God’s role as the creator of the universe. Production of a superior human being as dictated by science fiction is something that is associated with serious consequence. The A merican public is renowned for its eugenic ideas, which were engineered by scientific and political leaders, but whose menace became a reality during a grotesque fashion in Nazi Germany (National Bioethics Advisory Commission 629-641). Conclusion This paper has said it all, and it is obvious that the risks outweigh the benefits. It is because of this great imbalance that we do not support cloning. The main objective benefits associated with cloning are solving infertility issues, and for transplantation. On the other hand, it is evident that it is incommensurate with almost all of the ethical principles. As human beings charged with the responsibility of taking care of the environment, where animals are part, we should see to it that the animals are not subjected to intended pain. An evaluation of cloning, being among the many laboratory procedures involving animals, has led us to believe that it is ethically and morally wrong to clone animals, considering reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. Dolly, being the first animal to go public in relation to cloning, was also the reason for the stirred up debate about ethics of cloning. Physical endangerment is among the various health and safety concerns that arose from this debate. It is true that technology improves our standards of living, and quality of life, but it is also worth noting that it should not be at the expense of other creatures, the embryos, which even though undeveloped, should not be subjected to intended pain. The fact that animals cannot speak does not give humans the right to treat them in a cruel manner either. It is important to understand that technology is something which is readily accepted and embraced, but when it tends to produce something that is entirely different from the usual, it is then that it faces resistance, as is evident in this case of cloning. It is because of this very reason that cloning has stirred up strong feelings and has become such a contentious debate. We are of the opinion that cloning is associated with serious risks, which not only affect the clone but the donor as well. The case of Dolly, even though is considered inconclusive by some scientists, shows the challenges associated with cloning. To start with, too much life is wasted in the numerous attempts carried out. This proves just how cloning disrespects human life. Furthermore, the eventual birth of a clone does not guarantee absence of genetic mutation, which can be very fatal in the long-run. The birth mother on the other hand may suffer from miscarriages, and the ovum donor may suffer from ovum donor hormonal manipulation. A cloned individual is not free, because this element has been indirectly deprived from him/her due to expectations from society. The various issues raised by cloning makes it impossible for this technology to sail through. It is only until when the benefits of cloning will outweigh the risks associated it that it will be appropriate for physicians to pa rticipate in human cloning. As at now, it is not safe to reproduce children through human cloning because of the highly risky procedures involved as have been discussed in the paper. Regardless of resolved techniques and procedures, weighty concerns will continue to linger around the use of this technology on society and the individual due to anticipated negative effects. Despite the need for more research, it is impossible to imagine that ethical principles will continue to be greatly violated, because for accurate results to be finally obtained, life will not be accorded the respect it deserves. In addition, the society perception of a clone may be difficult to change. As the final word with regard to cloning, it is an extra-ordinary kind of technology that can be considered to be the epitome of man’s intellectualness. However, it is important to realize that it is not right to compete with God for one because; this technology is seen to mimic God. Worse is the fact that hu man cloning will transform creation into a manufacturing process, and violate all the principles that are associated with it. The IVF procedure has already played a very essential role in addressing infertility issues. We think that human cloning will destroy many values that have been amongst us since time in memorial. 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